Ablabys taenianotus (Cockatoo Waspfish), dead leaf mimicry 443–4,Plate 2
abstract behaviour 414,421
definition 408
robots 409–10
structure 409
abstraction
and correspondence problems 94
mechanisms 146
acquired equivalence 27
action generation, and adaptation 58–9
action goals, coding 74
action learning for imitation via correspondences between embodiments (ALICE) 12,43
applications 197
and CHESSWORLD 255
development 250
embodiment changes 269–71
framework 251
generating mechanism 251,252
history mechanism 251,252,261
overview 250–3
and RABIT 260,261
see also correspondence libraries
action metrics 259–60
action processing, social cognitive development 200–1
action repertoires 186–7
modification resistance 205–6
see also tabulae rasae
action-based interaction 407–10
see also communication by acting
action–perception matching 202–3,204,208
and mind-reading 211
see also perception–action coupling
actions 174
brain responses 74,90
concept of 36
executing 91
imagining 91
imitation 121–2
in autistic spectrum disorder 200
selection criteria 135
as intentions 144
low-level 93–4
matching 38
and mirror symmetry 37,38
on objects, imitation 218,222–3,239–40
observing 91
patterns 220–1
perceived 26
execution mismatch 205–6
perception of 90
recognition 92
representations, sensory vs. motor 26–7
robots 407–9
sequences of 251,252
robot learning 294
target 429–30
vertical associations 26–7
active inter-modal mapping (AIM) 19–20,24–5
action perception 26
concepts of 24–5
and correspondence problems 25
and effector-dependent observational learning 28–9
and facial imitation 200,239,240
and goal-directed imitation theory compared 30
hypothesis 239
ActivMedia Peoplebot 97
adaptability
agents 310
of evolution 312–14,315
adaptation, and action generation 58–9
ADI-R (autism diagnostic interview – revised) 208
adolescents, psychopathic-like traits 330
adult–child models 391
advanced learning
concept of 384–5
mechanisms 385
affordance learning 20,428
concept of 41
affordances, discovery 374
agent-based perspective, in robotic imitation 249–50
agents
adaptability 310
categories 182,183
category membership 181
characteristics 303–4
CHESSWORLD 253–4
fitness of 306,307,318–19
history 252
imitative interaction 181
implementation 182
intermediate 261–2
memories 182
mobile 304
motor outputs 304
mutations 306
navigation of 306–7,317–18
neural architecture 304
neural dynamics 305,318
non-responding 310–12
in populations 181–2,191
prediction 363
properties 181–2
roles 181
states 256–7,258
see also dynamical recognizers (DRs); virtual agents
aggressive behaviour, vs. bullying behaviour 324
AI see artificial intelligence (AI)
AIM see active inter-modal mapping (AIM)
air hockey 51,58
and humanoid robots 52–3, 58–9
primitives 53–4,55
tasks 47
testing environments 51–4
algorithms 57–8
Baum–Welch 161
expectation-maximization 161
forward 162
forward–backward 228
task learning 414
see also genetic algorithms (GAs); Viterbi algorithm
ALICE see action learning for imitation via correspondences between embodiments (ALICE)
Amphiprion spp. (damselfishes), mimicry 449
amygdala, functions 80
anemones 443
anglerfishes, colour changes 445
animal imitation 383
and robotic imitation, models compared 170–5
animals
cognitive processing 384–90
imitation 218
goals 137–45
studies 343
and kinesthetic–visual matching model 105–6
learning 384–90
mirroring 67–8
Ant Mimic Spider, colour changes 445
Antennariidae (fishes) 442
antisocial behaviour
origins 276–7
and psychopathy 330
apes
and demonstration components 138–9
imitation 218
learning 388–9
see also chimpanzees; humans; monkeys
appetitus noscendi 362
Araneidae (spiders) 442
arcuate fasciculus, inter-connections 81–2
Argonauta spp. (argonauts), chemical mimicry 443
artifacts
culture in, and correspondence problems 12,249–72
synthesis 275
see also imitation in artifacts
artificial fruit experiment
chimpanzees 432
keas 432
observers vs. non-observers 433
stimulus enhancement effects 433–4
artificial intelligence (AI)
and intrinsic motivation 362–3
probabilistic approaches 226–7
research goals 441
and social learning 1–2
artificial systems
imitation, goals 146–7
research 146
ASD see autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)
ASL see associative sequence learning (ASL)
Asperger’s syndrome, imitation in 205
Aspidontus taeniatus (False Cleanerfish), deceptive resemblance 443
associative rule, learning as 283–4
associative sequence learning (ASL) 19–20,24,26–8,77–8
action perception 26
and correspondence problems 26–7
and effector-dependent observational learning 29
limitations 31–2
models 171–3
schematic 26
theory 250–1
attention mechanisms, neonates and robots compared 280
Australian Leaf-wing Butterfly, dead leaf mimicry 443,444,Plate 2
autism
aetiology 328–9
and bullying behaviour 276–7
and echolalia 353–4
and empathy
automatic 329,332
controlled 329,332
and empathy deficits 328–31
empathy differences 330–1
and imitation deficits 329
imitation in 206–7,316–17
neuroimaging 207–8
studies 206–7
and mirror neurons 395–8
model/rival studies 379,380–1, 391–4
narrative deficit hypothesis of 328
and theory of mind 328
autism diagnostic interview - revised (ADI-R) 208
autism diagnostic observation schedule 208
autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)
action imitation 200
characterization 206
communication deficits 199–200
copying strategies 10–11,199–211
facial imitation 394
imitation in 204–6
and imitation skills 195,196
mind-reading in 204–6
and mirroring 206–7
model/rival studies 379,380–1,391–4
motor-learning deficits in 205
neuroimaging studies 207–8
results 208–11
symptoms 199–200
autonomy, neonates and robots compared 281–2
autotelic activities 371
avian–human interaction
communication 386–7
early studies 387–8
social 388
awareness, and imitation 30–1
Baldwin, J. M. 107–8,286
Baum–Welch algorithm 161
Bayes theorem 226,229–31
Bayesian imitative learning 228–31
and forward models 229
and goal states 228–31
and inverse models 228–31
Bayesian information criterion (BIC) 161
Bayesian models, of imitation 11–12,217–41,243
Bayesian networks 226
behaviour
active component 407–8
aggressive 324
classification 44
cultural transmission 261–4
demonstrators 141–2
explorative 362
imitation 99
and inferred goals 143
learned 179
peer 223
perceptual component 407–8
pop-out 280
propagation 191
surface 136,140–1
transmission of 180
unexpected 315–16
units of 47
see also abstract behaviour; antisocial behaviour; bullying behaviour; inverse models; matching behaviours; ‘pick up object’ behaviour; primitive behaviour; primitives; social behaviour; training behaviour
behaviour matching 131
behaviour networks 408–9
topological sorts 415–16
behavioural change, and development 241–2
behavioural re-enactment
studies 350
theories 351
behavioural skills, transmission 261
belief propagation 228
BIC (Bayesian information criterion) 161
Bigfin Reef Squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana), mimicry 448
biological systems
and mind-reading 69
units of behaviour 47
birds
imitation 139
mirror neurons 396
model/rival procedure 389–90
string-pulling problem 435
training methods, effects 389–90
vocal mimicry 443
see also avian–human interaction
Blanket Octopus, chemical mimicry 443
bodies, kinesthetic–visual matching between 116–18
body babbling 218,219
concept of 24–5
and internal models 227–8
and mazes 232–4
mechanisms 219
use of term 219,372
body language 419–20,421
body movements
and goal-directed imitation theory 25
imitation 25–6,218,220–2
and learning 195
matching 23–4
patterns 47–8
repeated, infants 372
transmission 23
body parts
identification 220
models 227–8
body perception
and kinesthesis 115–16
and kinesthetic–visual matching 115–16
and vision 115–16
body-part objectification 112–14,117
definition 112
evidence for 112–13
and kinesthetic–visual matching 118
and object-permanence understanding 113
primates 113
and visual–visual matching 112
Bonobo (Pan paniscus), learning 388–9
brain
information flows 74–5,78,82–3
macaques 71–2
neurons 72–3
motor areas 90
see also human brain
brain areas
activation 209,210
functions 76,83
identification methods 199
inferior frontal gyrus 74
kinesthetic–visual matching 121
for social cognitive function 210
see also Broca’s area; inferior frontal cortex; parietal region; posterior parietal cortex; pre-motor cortex; superior temporal cortex; superior temporal sulcus (STS); visual cortex; Wernicke’s area
brain imaging 72–5,76,90
see also functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Braitenberg, V. 275
Broadclub Cuttlefish, dead leaf mimicry 443–4,445,447–8,Plate 2
Broca’s area
functions 80
inter-connections 81–2
and speech production 80
bullies
characteristics 324
classification 324
empathy
automatic 331–2,333–4
controlled 331–2,333–4
family background 325–6
goals 334–5
intervention programmes 277
origins 326–7
as psychopaths 331
stereotypes 324–5
and victims, intervention strategies 335–6
see also neutrals; pure bullies; victims
bully/victims 324
precursors 326
bullying
classification 324
direct (physical) 324,331
indirect (relational) 324,331
verbal 324
bullying behaviour
aetiology 333
and autism 276–7
classification 324
development 326–7
and empathy 13–14,276–7,324–5,331–4
and imitation 13–14,276–7,323–36
and mind-reading 324–5
overview 323
and personality traits 325
precursors 325–7
and social blindness 324–5
and theory of mind 324–5
vs. aggressive behaviour 324
bullying intervention programmes 334–6
approaches 333–4
characteristics 334–6
cognitive approaches 335
empathy as tool for 334–5
families in 336
imitative interactive behaviour in 335–6
physical punishment 334
success rates 334
butterflies
dead leaf mimicry 443
deceptive resemblance 442
camouflage 442
cephalopods 446–7,Plate 3
see also deceptive resemblance
Caribbean Reef Squid (Sepioteuthis sepioidea), mimicry 425–6,448
categories
agents 182,183
dynamic emergence, through imitation 10,179–91
number of 187
use of term 182
category membership, agents 181
category variance 187–8
caterpillars, deceptive resemblance 442
cats, superior colliculus 121
Celaenia kinbergi (spider), deceptive resemblance 442
cephalopods
biology 445–6
camouflage 446–7,Plate 3
deceptive resemblance 445–6,447,Plate 3
mimicry 16–17,425–6,445,446–9
skin 446
see also cuttlefish; octopuses; squids
Chameleon effect 30
chameleons, colour changes 445
chemical mimicry 443
Chessworld
agents 253–4
and ALICE 255
Rabit 256–7
testbed 253–5
child–child interaction 276
children
copying 437
development, and imitation 341–2
imitation games 327
kinesthetic–visual matching 105,107,117
and mirror images 106–7
model/rival procedure, intervention strategies 390–4
psychopathic-like traits 330
and unexpected behaviour 315–16
see also disabled children; infants; neonates
chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
artificial fruit experiment 432
body-part objectification 113
emulation learning 427–8
imitation recognition studies 105–6
social learning 137–8
chromatophores 446
Cleaner Wrasse 443
clownfishes, chemical mimicry 443
Cockatoo Waspfish, dead leaf mimicry 443–4,Plate 2
cognition
computational models 83
cool 324–5
social 15–16,427–37
technical 15–16,427–37
cognitive empathy, concept of 328
cognitive processing
animals 384–90
parrots 386–7
cognitive science, social learning studies 179
colour changes, and mimicry 445
communication
definitions 292
development 203
and imitation 186–7,287,291, 344–5
mechanisms, synchrony and turn-taking 13–14,275–7
mental states 195,199–200,203
developmental steps 203–4
self-developing imitators 287–8
see also interaction
communication by acting
applications 410
experiments 411–12
environmental constraints 411–12
validation 411
and human–robot interaction 410–13
issues 412–13
communication deficits, in autistic spectrum disorder 199–200
communicative imitation, benefits 275–6
communicative interaction 341
communicative kinesics 41–2
comprehension, deficits 80–1
computer systems
learning processes 383
and social learning 1–2
conditioning
observational 428
stimulus-response 385
conduction aphasia 80
aetiology 81–2
see also Wernicke’s aphasia
conduite d’approche 82
confidences
calculation of 96
of inverse models 98
constructivism
and imitation 2–3
and social learning 2–3
continuous action spaces 181
control systems
behaviour-based 408–9
development 153
early 153
control theory 91–2
controllers
neural 293
robot 249
use of term 92
see also inverse models
cool cognition, use of term 324–5
cooperation, and turn-taking 302–3,311,316
coordination, proprioceptive 115
copying 20,38
humans 437
and social matching 40
see also mimicry
copying strategies, and autistic spectrum disorder 10–11,199–211
correspondence
mechanisms 6–7,19–20
mirror 109
partial 43
see also action learning for imitation via correspondences between embodiments (ALICE); mirror-correspondence understanding
correspondence libraries 147,251
construction 252–3
correspondence problems 6–7,19–20,35–44,108,167
and abstraction 94
and active inter-modal mapping 25
algebraic frameworks 174–5
and associative sequence learning 26–7
classification 37–40
concept of 250
and culture in artifacts 12,249–72
and embodiment 12,181–2
and goals 39
granularity 36–7
and inverse models 94
and kinesthesis 116
and learning 39–40
and matching behaviours 36
and matchings 37–8,204
metrics 36–7
models 6
and perception 12,249–72
and reinforcement learning 43
in robotic imitation, across embodiments 12,195,197–8,249–72
in social behaviour matching 6–7
in social learning 6–7,20
solving 19,43,94
identity mapping 228
infants 221
special cases 23–4
species independence 250
and synchrony 12,41–3,249–72
and turn-taking 41–3
see also action learning for imitation via correspondences between embodiments (ALICE)
Cosmophasis bitaeniata (spider), chemical mimicry 443
cost functions 163,168–9
definition 163
critical events 54
critics 363–4,365
design of 364
Csikszenthmihalyi, Mihaly 362,371
cues 421
feedback 413
goal-marking 44
and learning by imitation 413–19
multiple 415–19
spatial condition 207–8
see also spatial cue execution
cultural transmission
of behaviours 261–4
classification 43
robots 12
see also social transmission
culture in artifacts, and correspondence problems 12,249–72
cuttlefish, mimicry 447,448–9,Plate 3
damselfishes, mimicry 449
dead-horse arum, chemical mimicry 443
deceptive resemblance
cephalopods 445–6,447,Plate 3
forms of 442–3
mimicry as 16–17,425–6, 441–52
see also camouflage
deferred imitation 221
definition 346–7
infants 224,347,349,350
studies 347–8
mechanisms 347
motivations 346–8
of peer behaviour 223
and social interaction 348
demonstrations
components 138–40
species differences 138–9
experienced, learning by 413–14
gestures 165
inferring goals and intentions of imitation from 135–47
information sources 138,140–1
relevant aspects of 144,146
repeated 43–4
responses 139–40
robotic imitation from 135–6
demonstrators
behaviour patterns 141–2
and goals 141–2
goals 136,429–30
inferred 144,146–7
outcomes evaluation 145
intentions 142–3
surface behaviour 136,140–1
development
and behavioural change 241–2
children, and imitation 341–2
of communication 203
and embodiment 10–12,195–8
infants, and imitation 352–3
skill 201–2
zone of proximal 342,371
see also social cognitive development
developmental processes 201–2
developmental psychology, studies 217–18
developmental robotics
future trends 241–3
inter-disciplinary studies 243
developmental studies
humans 195–6
robots 196
disabled children
model/rival adaptations 390–8
model/rival studies 379,380–1
distance functions 59
Dolleschallia bisaltide (Australian Leaf-wing Butterfly), dead leaf mimicry 443,444,Plate 2
dolphins, imitation 139,197–8
dorsal pre-motor cortex, activation 209–10
DRs see dynamical recognizers (DRs)
Duck Soup (1933) (film) 103
dynamic mimicry
advantages 452
origins 449–52
vs. fixed mimicry 443–5
dynamic time warping 182,187–8
dynamical recognizers (DRs) 303
coupling 303
use of term 303
dys-granular sector, functions 79–80
early imitation
age of onset 361–2
developmental mechanisms 371–4
interpretation, progress drive hypothesis 361–75
motivations 362–3
origins 362
progress-driven 363,374
roles, functional 361
tree structure 373
echolalia 99,207,353
and autism 353–4
definition 353
motivations 354
ecological context 15–17
matching behaviours 425–6
eels, impersonation of 448
effect metrics 260
effector movements, and interaction 42
effector-dependent observational learning 28–9
and active inter-modal mapping 28–9
and associative sequence learning 29
concept of 28
and goal-directed imitation theory 29
studies 29
effects 174
concept of 36
definition 257
matching 39,41
organization 41
embodiment 184–5
changes 269–71
and correspondence problems 181–2
in robotic imitation 12,195,197–8,249–72
degree of 198
embodiment (cont.)
and development 10–12,195–8
see also action learning for imitation via correspondences between embodiments (ALICE); robotic arm embodiment for imitation testbed (Rabit)
empathy 68
automatic 327,328
and autism 329,332
in bullies 331–2,333–4
and bullying behaviour 13–14,276–7,324–5,331–4
cognitive 328
controlled 327–8
and autism 329,332
in bullies 331–2,333–4
deficits, and autism 328–31
differences
in autism 330–1
in psychopathy 330–1
and imitation 13–14,79,276–7,328–34
inhibition 325
and neural architecture for intentional relations 79–80
and psychopathy 329–30
and social intelligence 325
as tool for bullying intervention programmes 334–5
see also cognitive empathy
emulation 20,32
goal 41,428
and imitation compared 428–30
use of term 427
emulation learning 15–16,427–37
chimpanzees 427–8
concept of 41
issues 436–7
keas 425
issues 436
studies 430–2
epigenesis, probabilistic 282–3
ethology, imitation models 170–5
ETIS robots 279,280–4
attraction toward novelty 282–3
autonomy 281–2
kinesthesis 280
motor equipment 281
movement sensitivity 280
perception–action coupling 283–4
vision 280
exceptional learning 388,397–8
execution–prediction sequences 92–3
expectation-maximization algorithm 161
experts, tree of 369–71
explorative behaviour, infants 362
exteroception 91–2
eye movements 47
facial expressions
computer programs 394
interpretation deficits 204–5
facial imitation
and active inter-modal mapping 239,240
autistic spectrum disorder 394
and feedback 221
infants 221,345–6
neonates 200,345–6
False Cleanerfish, deceptive resemblance 443
families, in bullying intervention programmes 336
feedback
cues 413
and imitation 221
robots 414,417,418,419
teachers 417–19
see also social feedback
finger movements, studies 73,74
fishes
colour changes 445
deceptive resemblance 442,443
mimicry 449
chemical 443
dead leaf 443–4
fitness, of agents 306,307,318–19
fixed mimicry, vs. dynamic mimicry 443–5
flatfishes, deceptive resemblance 443,450,Plate 4
flatworms, deceptive resemblance 442–3
flow experiences 362,371
flowers, deceptive resemblance 442
forward algorithm 162
forward–backward algorithm 228
forward models 75
and Bayesian imitative learning 229
in human brain 92
implementation 96,97
inputs 80
learned 227–8,234–6,238–9,240–1
and mazes 233
mazes 232–4
mechanisms 92,227
multiple 92
outputs 80–1
pairing 92,93
roles 75
see also inverse models
frontal lobe damage, and imitation behaviour 99
Fujitsu HOAP-2 (humanoid robot) 157,238
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
autism studies 207–8
brain activation 209
finger movement studies 73,74
GAs see genetic algorithms (GAs)
Gaussians 159–60
gaze following 238–9
generalization skills
in robotic imitation 154,413,414, 421
experiments 415–17
genetic algorithms (GAs) 301,307–8,309,318
and adaptability evolution 312–14, 315
applications 305–6
genetic polymorphism 452
gestures
arbitrary 153–4
demonstrations 165
essence of 9,153–4
generalization 162
imitation
deficits 206,207
in humanoid robots 9–10,153–75
recognition 162,167–9
recording 156–7
robotic imitation 132
vocabularies of 419–20
Giant Cuttlefish, mimicry 447,448–9,Plate 3
GOADI theory see goal-directed (GOADI) imitation theory
goal emulation 41,428
goal extraction 132
goal states 94–5
and Bayesian imitative learning 228–31
desired 92
goal-directed actions 25
goal-directed (GOADI) imitation theory 19–20,24,25–6
action perception 26
and active inter-modal mapping compared 30
and body movements 25
concepts of 25–6
and effector-dependent observational learning 29
goal-marking cues 44
goals
action 74
bullies 334–5
and correspondence problems 39
and demonstrator behaviour patterns 141–2
demonstrators 136,429–30
of imitation 9,32–3,43–4,131–3
animals 137–45
artificial systems 146–7
future trends 147
infants 137–45,225
implementation 143
factors 143
inferred 131–2,140–3
behavioural information 143
demonstrators 144,146–7
as intentions 147,196–7
and kinesthetic–visual matching 118
matching 39
outcomes evaluation 145
of robotic imitation 136
shared 132–3
and social interaction 132–3
and trajectories 236–7
use of term 39,137
see also sub-goals
Gorgasia japonica (eel) 448
Grammicolepis brachiusculus (Tinsel Fish), deceptive resemblance 442
granularity
coarse 36,41–2
concept of 36
correspondence problems 36–7
end 36
end-point level 254
fine 36,41–2
path level 254
program-level imitation 41
trajectory level 254
graphical models 226,228
graphs 94–5,98
Grey parrot see Psittacus erithacus (Grey parrot)
Guillaume, Paul 103–4
kinesthetic–visual matching studies 107
habituation paradigm 282
Hairy Octopus
camouflage 447,Plate 3
mimicry 446–7
head-touch responses 222–3
Hebbian learning 20,78–9,283–4
Herder, Johann Gottfried von 362
HIA (hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention) disorders 330
hidden Markov models (HMMs) 10,172–3
applications 154,420
asynchronous 170
forward–backward algorithm 228
and gesture generalization 162
and gesture recognition 162
and principal components analysis 169–70
signal encoding 157,159–61,168
HMMs see hidden Markov models (HMMs)
HOAP-2 see Fujitsu HOAP-2 (humanoid robot)
homomorphisms 174
horizontal links 173
HRI see human–robot interaction (HRI)
human–avian interaction see avian–human interaction
human brain
brain imaging 90
forward models 92
inverse models 92
mirror properties 72–3
human–human interaction, kinesics 42–3
human models, and inferred intentions 225–6
human–robot interaction (HRI)
approaches 419–20
and communication by acting 410–13
ergonomic issues 290–1
experiments 411–12
instrumentation 411
field of study 407
kinesics 42–3
and learning by imitation 413–19
and learning from observation 413–19
research 381
and robot learning 407
studies 419–21
and task learning 15,379–80,407–22
humanoid robots
and air hockey 52–3,58–9
learning of gestures by imitation 9–10,153–75
data processing 157–67
data retrieval 162,163,164
experimental setup 155–7
modelling issues 169–75
preprocessing 157–9
system performance 167–9
sensory-motor flows 157,158
skills acquisition correspondence problems 20
see also Fujitsu HOAP-2 (humanoid robot)
humans
copying 437
demonstration components 139
development 217
developmental studies 195–6
effector-dependent observational learning 28
flexibility, evolutionary factors 217
imitation
brain-imaging studies 72–3
social function of 138
mirror systems 73–4
hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention (HIA) disorders 330
identification
impairment 200–1
see also organ identification
identity mapping 228
imitation 327–8
actions 121–2
actions on objects 218,222–3,239–40
animals 218
studies 343
in Asperger’s syndrome 205
in autism 206–7,316–17
neuroimaging 207–8
studies 206–7
in autistic spectrum disorder 204–6
automatic 30
and awareness 30–1
Bayesian models 11–12,217–41,243
body movements 25–6,218,220–2
brain-imaging studies 72–3,76
and bullying behaviour 13–14,276–7,323–36
categories, dynamic emergence 10,179–91
children, and development 341–2
and communication 186–7
communicative 275–6
communicative function of 279,287,291,344–5
constructivist approaches 2–3
issues 2–3
deficits, and autism 329
definitions 35–6,284
issues 343–4
development 279
developmental changes 25
developmental factors 204–5
effector-dependence 6
and empathy 13–14,79,276–7,328–34
and emulation compared 428–30
and feedback 221
focus of, issues 9–10
from television 351–2
studies 352
functions 137–8,287,355
in infants 343,344–5
gestures
deficits 206
in humanoid robots 9–10,153–75
goals 9,32–3,43–4,131–3
animals 137–45
artificial systems 146–7
infants 137–45
inferring from demonstrations 135–47
high-level 286–7
immediate 349,350
incidental 31–3
infants 122–3,202–3,220,222,289
Bayesian models 11–12,217–43
motivations 14,341,343–55
probabilistic models 239–41
progress drive hypothesis 14,361–75
infants and robots compared 275–6,279–96
of intended but incomplete acts 350–1
intentional 30,31–3
intentions 9
inferring from demonstrations 135–47
inter-disciplinary studies 243
and internal models 82
and inter-subjectivity 327–8
issues 180
keas 434
kinesthetic equivalence 107–8
and knowledge acquisition 179
and learned prior models 234–6
and learning 71,287,344–5
literature 3
low-level 286–7,293
and maze solving 231–8
mechanisms 1,2–3
and mirror neurons 397
and mirror-self-recognition 8–9,69–70,103–24
models 2–3
probabilistic 226–41
motivations 14,341–2
changing 352–3
cognitive 345
in infancy 14,341,343–55
movement 90–1
and movement observations 32
multi-faceted nature of 354–5
neural bases 200,218
neurophysiology 71–2
as observational learning 291
overview 1–17
and parietal region 8–9,103–24
in populations 180–6
processes 174
reciprocal 77–8
research 67–8
roles 195
communicative 275
and skills acquisition 275
as social behaviour 287–8
and social cognitive development 10–11,196,199–211
social context 179
and social development 68
social functions of 327
stepwise chain of events 144–5
and string parsing 171,172
teacher–student 180,190–1
and theory of mind 200,201
training behaviour by 14–15,383–98
true 20,284–5
unintentional 30,31
use of term 67–8
via task learning 15,407–22
vocal 353
vs. spatial cue execution 216
see also deferred imitation; early imitation; facial imitation; learning by imitation; matching behaviours; movement imitation; neonatal imitation; neural architecture for imitation; program-level imitation; pseudo-imitation; robot learning by imitation; robotic imitation; self-imitation; synchronic imitation; synchronous imitation
Imitation in Animals and Artifacts (2002) 3–4
imitation in artifacts 179
experiments 184
issues 190
studies 180
imitation behaviour, and frontal lobe damage 99
imitation games 132–3,182–4
children 327
concept of 182–3
experimental results 187
information flows 188
imitation games (cont.)
issues 190
measures 187–8
performance monitoring 187–8
procedures 183–4
results 188–90
robots 185,187,188–90,191
schematic 184
synchronous 314–15
imitation learning see imitative learning
imitation metrics 36–7,43–4,162–7
multidimensional case 165–7
unidimensional case 163–5
imitation skills, and autistic spectrum disorder 195,196
Imitation and Social Learning in Robots, Humans and Animals (2007)
academic background 3–4
chapters 6–17
organization 4–17
thematic sections 5
themes 4–17
imitation systems, components 145
imitation theories 19–20,24–8
contrasting 28–31
issues 6,23–33
testing 184–5
see also active inter-modal mapping (AIM); associative sequence learning (ASL); goal-directed (GOADI) imitation theory
imitative abilities, four-stage model, infants 195,196–7,218–19
imitative interaction
agents 181
dynamical properties 275,276
and synchrony 275
and turn-taking 275
imitative interactive behaviour, in bullying intervention programmes 335–6
imitative learning 31
infants 219–26
mechanisms 179
neonates 220
research 217–18
and robot controllers 249
see also Bayesian imitative learning
imitative success 187,190
parameters 198
imitators 441
construction 13,279–96
requirements 284–7
see also self-developing imitators
immediate communicative imitation 20
immediate imitation, infants 349,350
infant–caretaker interaction 276
infants
body movements, repeated 372
correspondence problems, solving 221
deferred imitation 224,347,349,350
development, and imitation 352–3
explorative behaviour 362
facial imitation 221,345–6
imitation 122–3,202–3,220,222,289
Bayesian models 11–12,217–43
body movements 220–1
deferred 224
functions 343,344–5
goals 137–40,145,225
inter-disciplinary studies 275–6,279–96
motivations 14,341,343–55
probabilistic models 239–41
progress drive hypothesis 14,361–75
imitative abilities, four-stage model 195,196–7,218–19
imitative learning 219–26
immediate imitation 349,350
inferred intentions 223–5,240–1
synchronic imitation 349,350
vocal imitation 353
see also neonates
inferior frontal cortex 71
functional properties 72,73–4
information flows 74–5
inter-connections 81–2
neurons 71–2
inferior frontal gyrus, pars opercularis, activity 74
inferred intentions 218,223–6
from demonstrations 135–47,240–1
and human models 225–6
infants 223–5,240–1
teachers 236–7
information flows
in brain 74–5,78,82–3
in imitation games 188
infrared sensors 280
innovation, sources of 182
insight 430
insular, functions 80
intelligence
Machiavellian 199
measures 208
social 325
technical 434–6
see also artificial intelligence (AI)
intelligent adaptive curiosity algorithm 368
intentional relations 77
second-order 77
see also neural architecture for intentional relations
intentional relations theory 78
assumptions 78–9
development 77
intentions
actions as 144
communicating 412–13
demonstrators 142–3
goals as 147,196–7
imitation 9
understanding 410
use of term 137
see also inferred intentions
interaction 41–2
child–child 276
communicative 341
and effector movements 42
human–human 42–3
infant–caretaker 276
and mirroring 42
with objects 374
sensorimotor 363
see also action-based interaction; avian–human interaction; communication; human–robot interaction (HRI); imitative interaction; mother–infant interaction; social interaction
interactive synchronization 20
internal models 75
and body babbling 227–8
and imitation 82
types of 92
see also forward models; inverse models
interpolation schemes 52–3
inter-subjective impairment 200–1
intersubjectivity 276
classification 302
and imitation 327–8
measurement issues 302–3
primary 302
secondary 302
and turn-taking 301–3
intrinsic motivation
and artificial intelligence 362–3
concept of 362–3
models 364
inverse kinematics 182
inverse models 75
applications 93–4
and Bayesian imitative learning 228–31
confidence levels 96
confidences 98
and correspondence problems 94
design of 93–4
goal states 94–5
high-level 93–4
in human brain 92
implementation 94–5,97
inputs 80–1
low-level 93–4
mechanisms 92,227
outputs 80
pairing 92,93
mechanisms 75–6
primitives 93–4,95
roles 75
see also behaviour; controllers; forward models; multiple inverse models
invertebrates, deceptive resemblance 425–6
iridophores 446
Jeannerod, Marc 115
jellyfishes
chemical mimicry 443
deceptive resemblance 442
Kalman filtering 242
keas see Nestor notabilis (Kea)
kernel based regression 54–7,62
kinesics
communicative 41–2
field of study 42
human–human interaction 42–3
human–robot interaction 42–3
and movement matching 42
kinesthesis
and body perception 115–16
and correspondence problems 116
neonates and robots compared 280
use of term 114
kinesthetic–kinesthetic matching 108
kinesthetic–visual matching 114–18
between bodies 116–18
and body perception 115–16
and body-part objectification 118
brain areas 121
children 105,117
definition 114
development 117
and goals 118
Guillaume’s views 107
and mirror-self-recognition 117
and motor imagery 119–20
and object-permanence understanding 118
kinesthetic–visual matching (cont.)
and parietal region 115–16,118–22
Piaget’s views 107
see also visual–visual matching
kinesthetic–visual matching model 69–70,104
and animals 105–6
criticisms 122–3
mechanisms 104–5
Kismet (robot) 301
knowledge
first-person 77
third-person 77
knowledge acquisition
automated 59
and imitation 179
Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology (Austria) 432
Labroides dimidiatus (Cleaner Wrasse) 443
language
body 419–20,421
and neural architecture for intentional relations 80–2
symbolic 419–20
Laticauda spp. (sea-snakes), mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
leaf mimicry 443–4,447–8,Plate 2
learned behaviour, propagation 179
learned prior models, and imitation 234–6
learning 341
animals 384–90
apes 388–9
as associative rule 283–4
and body movements 195
by experienced demonstrations 413–4
and correspondence problems 39–40
errors 414
exceptional 388,397–8
Hebbian 20,78–9,283–4
and imitation 71,287,344–5
locally weighted 57–8
and model/rival procedure 379, 389–90
parrots 386–7,390
processes
computer systems 383
maximization 341–2
self-developing imitators 287–8
sequence 20,428
and social context 380
and social feedback 380
stimulus-enhanced 210
trial-and-error 241–2
see also advanced learning; affordance learning; associative sequence learning (ASL); effector-dependent observational learning; emulation learning; imitative learning; observational learning; progress-driven learning; reinforcement learning; robot learning; social learning; task learning; visuomotor learning
learning by imitation 383–4
and cues 413–19
experiments 415–19
hierarchical architecture 420
issues 419
learning from observation
frameworks 61
and human–robot interaction 413–19
issues 7,54–7
modules 50
overview 47–8
and primitives 54–7
frameworks 50,60–1
research frameworks 47–61
research policies 61
research strategies 50–4
testing environments 51–4
learning from practice 47
modules 50,57
performance improvement 57–9
learning progress
definitions 367
evaluation 368
maximizing 367
learning theories, testing 184–5
leucophores 446
limbic system 79–80
lionfishes, mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
lizards, colour changes 445
local enhancement see stimulus enhancement
locomotion, patterns 47–8
loose perceptual matching 12
and robotic imitation 266–9
use of term 260
Lorenz, Konrad 362
macaques
brain 71–2
cortical regions 72
neurons 72–3,90
Machiavellian intelligence 199
Major, David 106–7
mapping
identity 228
problems 20
sensorimotor 20
statistical parametric 208
see also active inter-modal mapping (AIM)
marble mazes 51,56
distance functions 59
primitives 48,52,54
tasks 47,48
testing environments 51–4
Marx Brothers 103
mastery-driven systems 364–5
mechanisms 363
and novelty-driven systems compared 366–7
matching behaviours 19,35–6
and correspondence problems 36
definitions 35–6,284
ecological context 425–6
mechanisms 1
see also imitation
matching(s) 20,67,108
categorization 284–5
and correspondence problems 37–8,204
cross-modal 200
kinesthetic–kinesthetic 108
and mirrors 8–9,103–24
motor and sensory representations 27–8
probability 226
proprioceptive 264–6
social behaviour 6–7
see also action–perception matching; kinesthetic–visual matching; loose perceptual matching; social matching; visual–visual matching
mazes
and body babbling 232–4
forward models 232–4
solving, through imitation 231–8
see also marble mazes
meaning, and robots 196
medial frontal cortex, activation 210
memory
agents 182
and movement imitation 90–1
mental chronometry, experiments 91
mental states 201
communication 195,199–200,203
developmental steps 203–4
Menura novaehollandiae (Superb Lyrebird), vocal mimicry 443
MEPs see motor evoked potentials (MEPs)
meta-prediction 364,365
Metrica, Inc. 238
Mimic Octopus 17,425–6,449,450,Plate 4
dynamic mimicry 449–52
mimicry 20,425–6,428
behaviours 441
cephalopods 425–6,445,446–9
chemical 443
and colour changes 445
as deceptive resemblance 16–17,425–6,441–52
fixed 443–5
leaf 443–4,447–8,Plate 2
limited repertoires 445
mere 38
occurrence 441
octopuses 16–17,443,445–7,448,449,Plate 3
participants 441
and social matching 40
transient leaf 445
vocal 443
see also copying; deceptive resemblance; dynamic mimicry
mind
simulation theories of 68–9
see also theory of mind (TOM)
mind-reading 68,195
and action–perception matching 211
in autistic spectrum disorder 204–6
biological systems vs. robots 69
and bullying behaviour 324–5
developmental factors 204–5
imitative origins 200–4
and mirror systems 90
and mirroring 7–9,67–70
and robotics 68–9
theory theory of 69
use of term 77
mirror correspondence, concept of 109
mirror images, children and 106–7
mirror neurons (MNs) 71–2,204
activation 286
and autism 395–8
birds 396
discovery 69,286
evidence for 207–8
functions 72,74–6
and imitation 397
and model/rival procedure 397–8
models 20
monkeys 396
studies 218
use of term 90
mirror properties, human brain 72–3
mirror symmetry, and actions 37,38
mirror systems
humans 73–4
and mind-reading 90
neurobiological disorders 329
mirror-correspondence understanding 109–10
failure 110
and self-recognition 109–10
mirroring
animals 67–8
and autistic spectrum disorder 206–7
brain structures 355
and interaction 42
and mind-reading 7–9,67–70
overview 103–4
mirrors, and matchings 8–9,103–24
mirror-self-recognition
and imitation 8–9,69–70,103–24
early studies 103–4
issues 123–4
and kinesthetic-visual matching 117
MNs see mirror neurons (MNs)
mobile robotic platforms, experiments 97
model/rival (M/R) procedure 15,387–9
adaptations, disabled children 390–8
applications 380–1
in autism 379,380–1,391–4
birds 389–90
intervention strategies, children 390–4
and learning 379,389–90
and mirror neurons 397–8
response imitation 395
role exchange 388
single-trainer method 390–4,395
studies
disabled children 379,380–1
parrots 379,380–1
success mediation 394–8
two-trainer method 391,392
modelling 91–4
architectures 92–4
fundamentals 91–2
modularity, and primitives 48
monkeys
body-part objectification 113
effector-dependent observational learning 28
imitation 218
mirror neurons 396
motor imagery 120
see also apes; macaques
MOSAIC model 75
extensions 80
mother–infant interaction
reciprocal imitation 77–8
roles 68
moths, deceptive resemblance 442
motion
styles of 308–14,317
development 13,301–17
solo 308
motivations
changing 352–3
cognitive 345
deferred imitation 346–8
early imitation 362–3
echolalia 354
imitation 14,341–2
infants 14,341,343–55
neonatal imitation 345–6
social learning 341,342
social matching 341,342
synchronic imitation 348–50
see also intrinsic motivation
motor activations 92–3
inhibition 92–3
and movement observations 32
motor commands
suppression 99
and visual input 19,23–4
motor equipment, neonates and robots compared 281
motor evoked potentials (MEPs) 90
induction 30
motor imagery 118–22
concept of 118–19
and kinesthetic-visual matching 119–20
monkeys 120
motor outputs, agents 304
motor primitives 219
motor representations 24,26–7
observation-activated 29
and sensory representations, matching 27–8
motor senses 114
motor-learning deficits, in autistic spectrum disorder 205
movement imitation, and memory 90–1
movement matching, and kinesics 42
movement observations
and imitation 32
and motor activation 32
movement representations 24
movement sensitivity, neonates and robots compared 280
movements
eye 47
finger 73,74
muscle 24–5
stimulus 30–1
see also body movements
M/R procedure see model/rival (M/R) procedure
Mt. Cook National Park (New Zealand) 431,Plate 1
multiple inverse models
pairing 92–3
and recognition 92–3
muscle movements, directory of 24–5
mutations, agents 306
narrative deficit hypothesis, of autism 328
nasty minds, theory of 325
nearest neighbour approaches 54–7,62–4
neonatal imitation
development 279
evidence for 122–3
issues 285–7,346
mechanisms 202–3,285–6
developmental 372
motivations 345–6
and robotic imitation compared 280–4
neonates
attention mechanisms 280
attraction toward novelty 282–3
autonomy 281–2
body babbling 219
facial imitation 200,345–6
imitative learning 220
kinesthesis 280
motor equipment 281
movement sensitivity 280
perception 280–4
perception–action coupling 283–4
sensorimotor coupling 281
vision 280,282–3
see also infants
neophilia 362
keas 430
Nestor notabilis (Kea) 431,Plate 1
artificial fruit experiment 432
biology 430–2
emulation learning 16,425
issues 436
studies 430–2
foraging 430
imitation 434
neophilia 430
social behaviour 430
social learning 430–2
string-pulling problem 434–6
technical intelligence 434–6
networks
Bayesian 226
recurrent neural 294
task 415–16
see also behaviour networks
neural architecture for imitation 7,68,71–84
computational properties 75–6
issues 83–4
overview 71
process vs. representation 82–3
neural architecture for intentional relations 7,68,71–84
and empathy 79–80
and language 80–2
neural controllers 293
neural dynamics, agents 305,318
neural polymorphism 452
neural systems, human precursors 71–2
neuroimaging
of imitation in autism 207–8
see also functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
neurones see neurons
neurons
activation 286
in parietal region 120–1
premotor 71–2,90
properties 72–3,75–6
responses 71
visual properties 72
see also mirror neurons (MNs)
neurophysiology, of imitation 71–2
neuroscience 2
and imitation 218
neutrals 324,331
precursors 326
New Zealand, keas 425,430,431
newborn see neonates
no blame approach 334
nodes 94–5
noise, and turn-taking simulation model 307,310–12
novelty
attraction toward, neonates and robots compared 282–3
and synchronous imitation 314–15
novelty-driven systems 365
and mastery-driven systems compared 366–7
mechanisms 363
object affordances 341–2
object re-enactment, concept of 206
object-generalization model 69–70,104
criticisms 123
mechanisms 105
objectification 112–14
see also body-part objectification
object-permanence understanding 110–12,117
and body-part objectification 113
and kinesthetic–visual matching 118
and parietal region 111–12
Piaget’s views 110–12
objects
actions on, imitation 218,222–3,239–40
interaction with 374
observational conditioning 428
observational learning 341
imitation as 291
see also effector-dependent observational learning; learning from observation
observations, segmentation 54
Octopus berrima (Southern Keeled Octopus), mimicry 446–7
octopuses
camouflage 447,Plate 3
mimicry 16–17,445–7,448,449,Plate 3
chemical 443
oculomotor babbling 238–9
ontogenesis 77–9
optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) 47
orchids, deceptive resemblance 442
organ identification 221
concept of 24
organ relations
concept of 24
proprioceptively coded 25
transformations 25
visually coded 25
Pan paniscus (Bonobo), learning 388–9
Pan troglodytes see chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
parameter selection
and primitive execution 60–1
and primitive type 60
parietal region
activation 121–2
and imitation 8–9,103–24
and kinesthetic–visual matching 115–16,118–22
neurons 120–1
and object-permanence understanding 111–12
responses 121
parrots
cognitive processing 386–7
imitation 384
training behaviour 14–15,383–98
learning 386–7,390
mirror neurons 396
model/rival studies 379,380–1
referential labels 391
speech 386
see also Nestor notabilis (Kea); Psittacus erithacus (Grey parrot)
particle filtering 242
PCA see principal component analysis (PCA)
PCL-R (psychopathy checklist – revised) 329–30
peer behaviour, deferred imitation 223
peer–child models 391
PerAc architecture 283
interaction 292
and learning 283–4
reflex links 293
see also perception–action coupling
perception
and correspondence problems 12,249–72
robots 407–9
and neonates compared 280–4
see also body perception
perception–action coupling 279
neonates and robots compared 283–4
neuroimaging studies 285–6
see also action-perception matching; PerAc architecture
perceptive information 281
perceptual representations 80–1
performance, improving through practice 57–9
personality traits, and bullying behaviour 325
perspective-taking processes 99
phonemes 386
Phyllidiella pustulosa (sea slug) 442–3
Piaget, Jean 241–2,361
imitation studies 348
kinesthetic-visual matching studies 107
neonatal imitation theories 286,345–6
and object-permanence understanding 110–12
pseudo-imitation 374
‘pick up object’ behaviour 97
robots 95,98
Pioneer 2DX mobile robot 15,421
communication by acting experiments 411–12
instrumentation 411
learning by imitation experiments 415–19
Platax orbicularis (Round Batfish), dead leaf mimicry 443–4,Plate 2
Platax pinnatus (Pinnatus Batfish), deceptive resemblance 443
polymorphism
genetic 452
neural 452
pop-out behaviours 280
populations
agents in 181–2,191
imitation in 180–6
posterior parietal cortex 71
functional properties 72,73–4
information flows 74–5
inter-connections 81–2,121
practice
and performance improvement 57–9
and robot learning 414,417–19,421
see also learning from practice
prediction 92,364,365
agents 363
breakdown 308–10,311,315–16
systems 364
preference looking paradigms 285–6
premotor cortex
dorsal 209–10
neurons 90,286
primates
body-part objectification 113
goals 131–2
imitation 218
mirror systems 90
see also apes; humans; monkeys
primitive behaviour
definition 408
robots 410
structure 409
primitive type
and parameter selection 60
selection 61–2
improving 62–4
primitives
advantages 49
in air hockey 53–4,55
challenges 48–9
classifiers 50
definition 47
execution, and parameter selection 60–1
function approximators 50
inverse models 93–4,95
issues 59–61
and learning from observation 54–7
frameworks 50,60–1
libraries of 50,59
in marble mazes 48,52,54
and modularity 48
motor 219
properties 59
research issues 59
research strategies 50–4
and robot learning 47,48–9,50
roles, computational theories 48
selection criteria 49,50,57–8
tasklevel 48
units 20
see also motor primitives
principal component analysis (PCA) 10
applications 154
and hidden Markov models 169–70
preprocessing by 157–9
advantages 159
principles 157–8
probabilistic epigenesis 282–3
probabilistic models
applications 226
of imitation 226–41
infants 239–41
probability matching 226
process, vs. representation 82–3
program-level imitation 41,428
concept of 41
granularity 41
progress drive hypothesis 14,341–2,361–75
and self-imitation 372–3
progress niches 371–2,373
concept of 371
progress-driven learning 363–71
architectures 363
as reinforcement learning 363–4
see also mastery-driven systems; novelty-driven systems; progress-driven systems
progress-driven systems 367–8,374
mechanisms 363
proprioception 91–2,238–9,251,267
use of term 114
proprioceptive matching, and robotic imitation 264–6
proto-culture 262,263
emergence 261–4
proximal development, zone of 342,371
Pseudoceras imitatus (flatworm) 442–3
pseudo-imitation
developmental mechanisms 373–4
use of term 374
Psittacus erithacus (Grey parrot) 15
cognitive processing 386–7
imitation 197–8
learning 386–7
model/rival studies 379,380–1
string-pulling problem 435
psychology
developmental 217–18
imitation models 170–5
and robotic experiments 275
and social learning 1–2
see also synthetic psychology
psychopaths
aetiology 330
bullies as 331
profiles 329–30
and semantic dementia 330
psychopathy
and antisocial behaviour 330
and empathy 329–30
empathy differences 330–1
traits, in children and adolescents 330
psychopathy checklist – revised (PCL-R) 329–30
Pterois spp. (lionfishes), mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
punishment, physical 334
pure bullies
characteristics 324–5
precursors 325
profiles, issues 324–5
research findings 326
Q learning 57–8,63–4
RABIT see robotic arm embodiment for imitation testbed (RABIT)
ravens, string-pulling problem 435
rear scopes (RSs) 304,318–19
recipients 441
recognition
actions 92
and multiple inverse models 92–3
see also dynamical recognizers (DRs); self-recognition
recurrent neural networks (RNNs) 294
recursion 93–4
referential labels, parrots 391
reflex behaviours 281
reinforcement learning 283–4
and correspondence problems 43
progress-driven learning as 363–4
representations
intermediate 28
movement 24
perceptual 80–1
supramodal 25,26,28–9
visual 24
vs. process 82–3
see also motor representations; sensory representations
responsibility signals 75
rhythm 41–2
right posterior temporal cortex, activation 210
RMS (root mean square) error 164
RNNs (recurrent neural networks) 294
robot controllers, and imitative learning 249
robot–human interaction see human–robot interaction (HRI)
robot learning
action sequences 294
applications 238–9
approaches 407
and human–robot interaction 407
interactional perspectives 292–3
and practice 414,417–19,421
and primitives 47,48–9,50
robot learning by imitation 407
field of study 195–6
use of term 153
robot programming by demonstration see robot learning by imitation
robotic arm embodiment for imitation testbed (Rabit) 256–60
agents 256–7,258
and ALICE 260,261
behaviours 257
metrics 257–60
action 259–60
effect 260
state 259
robotic experiments, and psychology 275
robotic imitation
advantages 153
agent-based perspective 249–50
and animal imitation, models compared 170–5
Bayesian models 11–12,217–43
and correspondence problems 12,195,249–72
issues 271–2
development 279
experiments 260–71
field of study 420
from demonstrations 135–6
generalization skills 154,413,414,421
experiments 415–17
of gesture 132
goals 136
inter-disciplinary studies 195–6,243,275–6,279–96
issues 135
loose perceptual matching 266–9
and neonatal imitation compared 280–4
proprioceptive matching 264–6
research 136–7
synchronization 264
robotic learning see robot learning
robotic systems 238
and social learning 1–2
robotics
field of study, developments 218
and mind-reading 68–9
probabilistic approaches 226–7
and salience 44
and simulation theories of understanding others 7–8,89–100
experiments 97
implementation 94–6
issues 98–100
modelling 91–4
overview 89–91
see also developmental robotics
robots
abstract behaviour 409–10
actions 407–9
attention mechanisms 280
autonomous 279
control systems
developments 153
early 153
cultural transmission 12
developmental studies 196
feedback 414,417,418,419
imitation, training behaviour 383–98
imitation games 185,187,188–90,191
interactive capabilities 407
and meaning 196
and mind-reading 69
perception 280–4,407–9
‘pick up object’ behaviour 95,98
primitive behaviour 410
as self-developing imitators 290–5
social behaviour 412–13
social capabilities 407
socially intelligent 277
strategy learning 59–60
synchrony 294–5
turn-taking 295
see also ETIS robots; humanoid robots; Pioneer 2DX mobile robot
role splitting 276
role switching 276
root mean square (RMS) error 164
Round Batfish, dead leaf mimicry 443–4,Plate 2
Runge–Kutta method 306–7
salience
measures 43–4
and robotics 44
roles 43
San Francisco (US), Exploratorium 116–17
screen problem 366–7
experimental results 369–71
sea slugs 442–3
sea-snakes, mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
self-developing imitators
communication 287–8
learning 287–8
requirements 287–95
robots 290–5
synchrony 289–90
turn-taking 288–9
self-imitation
developmental mechanisms 372–3
and progress drive hypothesis 372–3
self-organization 185
self-recognition
components 103–4
and mirror-correspondence understanding 109–10
models 104–17,118
criticisms 122–3
early studies 106–7
see also kinesthetic-visual matching model; object-generalization model
see also mirror-self-recognition
semantic dementia, and psychopaths 330
sensorimotor coupling
neonates 281
reflex behaviours 281
sensorimotor interaction 363
sensorimotor mapping 20
sensors, infra-red 280
sensory representations 26–7
and motor representations, matching 27–8
sensory-motor flows, humanoid robots 157,158
Sepia apama (Giant Cuttlefish), mimicry 448–9,Plate 3
Sepia latimanus (Broadclub Cuttlefish), dead leaf mimicry 443–4,445,447–8,Plate 2
Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Bigfin Reef Squid), mimicry 448
Sepioteuthis sepioidea (Caribbean Reef Squid), mimicry 425–6,448
sequence learning 20,428
see also associative sequence learning (ASL)
Shakespeare, William, A Midsummer Night’s Dream 201
shared concern, method of 334
signal encoding, in hidden Markov models 157,159–61,168
signal–receiver relationships 441
silhouettes 116–17
similarity, concept of 36
simulation theories 89–90
biological evidence 90–1
characteristics 89
of mind 68–9
of understanding others
modelling 91–4
overview 89–91
robotic implementation 94–6
robotics perspectives 7–8,89–100
skill development, mechanisms 201–2
skills
behavioural 261
imitation 195,196
social transmission 43
see also generalization skills
skills acquisition
correspondence problems, solving 20
and imitation 275
and social learning
skin
cephalopods 446
texture modifications 446
Skinner, B. F. 241–2
Snail Mimic Octopus, mimicry 447, Plate 3
social behaviour
imitation as 287–8
keas 430
robots 412–13
social behaviour matching, correspondence problems 6–7
social blindness, and bullying behaviour 324–5
social cognition, and technical cognition 15–16,427–37
social cognitive development
and action processing 200–1
factors affecting 210
and imitation 10–11,196,199–211
social cognitive function, brain areas for 210
social context
imitation 179
and learning 380
social development, and imitation 68
social facilitation 20,284–5,433
social feedback 14–15,379–81
and learning 380
social information processing models 325
social intelligence, and empathy 325
social interaction
avian–human 388
and deferred imitation 348
dynamics 277
and goals 132–3
social learning 131
behavioural skills transmission 261
classification 39
constructivist approaches 2–3
issues 2–3
correspondence problems 6–7,20
definitional issues 343–4
field of study 1–2
functions 137–8
goals 39
inter-disciplinary perspectives 1–2
issues 190,271–2
keas 430–2
literature 3
mechanisms 1,2–3,35,61–2,384
models 2–3,250–1
motivations 341,342
multi-dimensional frameworks 429–30
overview 1–17
research 67–8
and skills acquisition
stimulus enhancement 40–1
studies 179
social matching 40
analysis 40–1
and copying 40
and mimicry 40
motivations 341,342
types of 40
social transmission 262
skills 43
see also cultural transmission
soles, mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
somatic periphery 114
perception of 114
somesthesis, use of term 114
Southern Keeled Octopus, mimicry 446–7
spatial cue condition 207–8
spatial cue execution 209–10
vs. imitation 216
spatial trails 307–8,309,310,312
speech, parrots 386
speech production 80
spiders
chemical mimicry 443
colour changes 445
deceptive resemblance 442
SPM2 (statistical parametric mapping) 208
squids, mimicry 425–6,448
SRC (stimulus-response compatibility) 30–1
state metrics 259
state space models, hierarchical 242
states 174
agents 256–7,258
concept of 36
matching 37–8
system 92–3
see also goal states; mental states
statistical parametric mapping (SPM2) 208
stick insects, deceptive resemblance 442
stimulus enhancement 40–1,284,428
in artificial fruit experiment 432–4
concept of 40
stimulus movements 30–1
stimulus-enhanced learning 210
stimulus-response compatibility (SRC), studies 30–1
strategy learning, robots 59–60
string parsing
and imitation 171,172
models 250–1
string-pulling problem, keas 434–6
STS see superior temporal sulcus (STS)
sub-goals 54–7
generation 50,57–8
improving 62–4
Superb Lyrebird, vocal mimicry 443
superior colliculus, cats 121
superior frontal cortex, activation 210
superior temporal cortex 71
functional properties 72
and language 80
posterior parietal cortex 74–5
superior temporal sulcus (STS) 72
activation 209–10
information flows 82–3
neurons 71
activation 286
properties 72,75–6
responses 74
supra-modal representations 25,26, 28–9
surface behaviour, demonstrators 136,140–1
symbolic languages 419–20
synchronic imitation 117
definition 314,348–9
games 314–15
infants 349,350
mechanisms 349–50
motivations 348–50
and novelty 314–15
studies 349
synchronization 12,265
definition 257
interactive 20
models 279
synchronous imitation see synchronic imitation
synchrony
as communicative mechanism 13–14,275–7
concept of 294–5
and correspondence problems 12,41–3,249–72
and imitative interaction 275
robots 294–5
self-developing imitators 289–90
synthetic psychology 301
approaches 275
and turn-taking 301
system identification 227
system states 92–3
tabulae rasae 182,186,191
see also action repertoires
Tannenbaum, Ed 116–17
task elements 48
relevancy issues 49
task learning
and human–robot interaction 15,379–80,407–22
performance 419
through imitation 15,407–22
task learning algorithms 414
task networks 415–16
tasks
objectives 57
temporal issues 98–9
teacher–student imitation 180,190–1
teachers
feedback 417–19
inferred intentions 236–7
trajectories 231,232,234–7
technical cognition, and social cognition 15–16,427–37
technical intelligence, keas 434–6
television
imitation from 351–2
studies 352
theory of mind (TOM) 77,223
and autism 328
and bullying behaviour 324–5
deficits 331
and imitation 200,201
see also understanding others
theory theory 89
of mind-reading 69
Tinsel Fish, deceptive resemblance 442
TMS see transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
TOM see theory of mind (TOM)
tool affordances 41
topological sorts, behaviour networks 415–16
training behaviour, by imitation 14–15,383–98
training methods, effects 389–90
trajectories
and goals 236–7
teachers 231,232,234–7
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 30
mirror system studies 73–4
transient leaf mimicry 445
Tremoctopus spp. (Blanket octopuses), chemical mimicry 443
trial-and-error learning 241–2
true imitation 20,284–5
turn-taking 20
chaotic irregular 308
classification 308
as communicative mechanism 13–14,275–7
and co-operation 302–3,311,316
and correspondence problems 41–3
dynamical properties 276,277
games 341
geometrically regular 308
and imitative interaction 275
and inter-subjectivity 301–3
phenomenological theory of 301–2
processes 308–14
robots 295
self-developing imitators 288–9
simulated 13,301–17
spatial trails 307–8,309,310,312
and synthetic psychology 301
turn-taking simulation model
agents’ description 303–4
dynamical recognizers 303
environmental conditions 306–7
evolution schema 305
issues 314–17
and noise 307,310–12
overview 303–7
prediction breakdown 308–10,311,315–16
simulation results 307–14
undersocialized aggressive conduct disorder 330
understanding others
inferences 89–90
simulation theories, robotics perspectives 7–8,89–100
see also theory of mind (TOM)
value function 230
ventral temporal cortex, activation 210
vertical associations 26–7,32–3,171–2,173
direct 27
Hebbian 27
indirect 27
vestibular ocular reflex (VOR) 47
victimization behaviour see bullying behaviour
victims
and bullies, intervention strategies 335–6
and bullying 324
empathy issues 325
precursors 326
profiles 324,331
Vienna (Austria), Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology 432
virtual agents
performance 316
use of term 311–12
vision
and body perception 115–16
neonates 282–3
and robots compared 280
use of term 114
vision systems, stereoscopic 157
visual cortex, activation 210
visual information 72
visual input, and motor commands 19,23–4
visual maps 115
visual representations 24
visual–visual matching 108–9
and body-part objectification 112
see also kinesthetic-visual matching
visual–kinesthetic images 113–14
visuomotor learning 208,209–10
processes 211
Viterbi algorithm 162,163,164, 165–6
vocabularies, of gestures 419–20
vocal imitation
infants 353
see also echolalia
vocal mimicry 443
VOR (vestibular ocular reflex) 47
vowel systems 186–7
Vygotsky, Lev Semyonovich 342,371
Wechsler adult intelligence scale - IV 208
Wechsler intelligence scale for children 208
Wernicke’s aphasia 80
comprehension deficits 80–1
Wernicke’s area
functions 80–1
inter-connections 81–2
Zazzo, René 286
Zebrias spp. (soles), mimicry 449,450,Plate 4
zone of proximal development 342,371